Review

Nanotechnology in Aquaculture: Food Safety, Human Health Risks, and Regulatory Challenges

Ntombikayise Mahaye ORCID
    Received
    05 Aug 2025
    Published
    25 Jul 2025

    Abstract

    The integration of nanotechnology into aquaculture presents transformative opportunities to enhance feed efficiency, disease control, and sustainability. However, the potential for engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) to accumulate in edible tissues raises significant food safety and human health concerns. Recent analyses using single-particle ICPMS have detected ENPs in seafood at trace but measurable concentrations. For example, titanium dioxide ENPs were identified in tuna and clam samples at levels ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 mg/kg, corresponding to estimated dietary exposures of 0.9–3.2 µg/kg body weight/day. Similarly, experimental exposure studies show that silver ENPs can accumulate in edible fish muscle at concentrations ranging from 10 to 80 µg/kg, depending on particle size and exposure duration. These findings underscore the need for strengthened analytical monitoring and risk assessment frameworks to evaluate potential human health implications. This review focuses on nano-enabled applications that directly affect seafood safety, including nano-feed additives, antimicrobial agents, and nanocarriers for therapeutics. Evidence from bioaccumulation studies, toxicokinetics, and in vitro assays is examined to assess potential human exposure and risks via seafood consumption. Regulatory frameworks from the EFSA, FDA, and Codex Alimentarius are compared to highlight gaps in oversight. Risk mitigation strategies, including Safe-by-Design nanomaterials and improved analytical detection, are also discussed. The review concludes with research priorities aimed at ensuring the safe and sustainable adoption of nanotechnology in the seafood sector.

    Keywords

    Nanotechnology, Aquaculture, Bioaccumulation, Food Safety, Human Health, Regulatory Frameworks

    References
    1. [1]Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2025. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2025-2034: Fish and Other Aquatic Products. OECD: Paris, France. Available from: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-fao-agricultural-outlook-2025-2034_601276cd-en/full-report/fish-and-other-aquatic-products_ed13346f.html
    2. [2]Food and Agriculture Organization, 2022. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. FAO: Rome, Italy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en
    3. [3]Britsch, M.L., Leslie, H.M., Stoll, J.S., 2021. Diverse Perspectives on Aquaculture Development in Maine. Marine Policy. 131, 104697. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104697
    4. [4]Tan, S.-Y., Sethupathi, S., Leong, K.-H., et al., 2024. Challenges and Opportunities in Sustaining Aquaculture Industry in Malaysia. Aquaculture International. 32(1), 489–519. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-023-01173-w
    5. [5]Shinn, A., Pratoomyot, J., Bron, J., et al., 2015. Economic Impacts of Aquatic Parasites on global Finfish Production. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283506528_Economic_impacts_of_aquatic_parasites_on_global_finfish_production (cited 22 July 2025).
    6. [6]Ruben, M.O., Akinsanola, A.B., Okon, M.E., et al., 2025. Emerging Challenges in Aquaculture: Current Perspectives and Human Health Implications. Veterinary World. 15–28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2025.15-28
    7. [7]Cabello, F.C., Godfrey, H.P., Buschmann, A.H., et al., 2016. Aquaculture as yet Another Environmental Gateway to the Development and Globalisation of Antimicrobial Resistance. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 16(7), e127–e133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(16)00100-6
    8. [8]Lowry, G.V., Avellan, A., Gilbertson, L.M., 2019. Opportunities and Challenges for Nanotechnology in the Agri-Tech Revolution. Nature Nanotechnology. 14(6), 517–522. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-019-0461-7
    9. [9]Farré, M., Gajda-Schrantz, K., Kantiani, L., et al., 2009. Ecotoxicity and Analysis of Nanomaterials in the Aquatic Environment. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 393(1), 81–95. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-008-2458-1
    10. [10]Khan, S.K., Dutta, J., Ahmad, I., et al., 2024. Nanotechnology in Aquaculture: Transforming the Future of Food Security. Food Chemistry: X. 24, 101974. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2024.101974
    11. [11]Nguyen, M.Q., Nguyen, D.M., Toan, T.T.T., et al., 2024. Review—Nanotechnology in Aquaculture: Applications and Challenges. Journal of The Electrochemical Society. 171(5), 057507. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/ad48c2
    12. [12]Harshitha, M., Nayak, A., Disha, S., et al., 2023. Nanovaccines to Combat Aeromonas Hydrophila Infections in Warm-Water Aquaculture: Opportunities and Challenges. Vaccines. 11(10), 1555. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11101555
    13. [13]Jayasri, M., Shyamala, G., Thirumalarao, G., 2025. Nano Material Application in Wastewater Treatment. E3S Web of Conferences. 619, 04011. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202561904011
    14. [14]Mahmud, M.N., Haque, M.M., 2025. Reassessing the Role of Nanoparticles in Core Fields of Aquaculture: A Comprehensive Review of Applications and Challenges. Aquaculture Research. 2025(1), 6897333. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/are/6897333
    15. [15]Mahaye, N., Thwala, M., Cowan, D.A., et al., 2017. Genotoxicity of Metal Based Engineered Nanoparticles in Aquatic Organisms: A Review. Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research. 773, 134–160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrrev.2017.05.004
    16. [16]More, S., Bampidis, V., Benford, D., et al., 2021. Guidance on Risk Assessment of Nanomaterials to Be Applied in the Food and Feed Chain: Human and Animal Health. EFSA Journal. 19(8). DOI: https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6768
    17. [17]U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2014. Considering Whether an FDA-Regulated Product Involves the Application of Nanotechnology. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/considering-whether-fda-regulated-product-involves-application-nanotechnology (cited 6 June 2025).
    18. [18]Ma, F., Fan, Z., Nikolaeva, A., et al., 2025. Redefining Aquaculture Safety with Artificial Intelligence: Design Innovations, Trends, and Future Perspectives. Fishes. 10(3), 88. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10030088
    19. [19]Ghara, S., Biswas, S., Patel, R.S., et al., 2025. CRISPR-Cas and Nanotech in Aquaculture: Pioneering Genetic Advancements for Food Security. In: Ahmed, I., Ahmad, I. (Eds.). Aquaculture: Enhancing Food Security and Nutrition. Springer Nature: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 287–311. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92858-1_14
    20. [20]Rana, K.J., Hasan, M.R., Siriwardena, S., 2009. Impact of Rising Feed Ingredient Prices on Aquafeeds and Aquaculture Production. FAO: Rome, Italy. Available from: https://www.fao.org/4/i1143e/i1143e00.htm
    21. [21]White, P.G., 2013. Environmental Consequences of Poor Feed Quality and Feed Management. FAO: Rome, Italy. Available from: https://www.fao.org/fishery/docs/CDrom/T583/root/21.pdf
    22. [22]Munguti, J.M., Kirimi, J.G., Obiero, K.O., et al., 2020. Aqua-Feed Wastes: Impact on Natural Systems and Practical Mitigations—A Review. Journal of Agricultural Science. 13(1), 111. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/jas.v13n1p111
    23. [23]Tacon, A.G.J., Metian, M., 2015. Feed Matters: Satisfying the Feed Demand of Aquaculture. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture. 23(1), 1–10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2014.987209
    24. [24]Chatterjee, P., Khan, A., 2025. Nanotechnology’s Voyage: Enriching Aquafeed with Nutraceuticals. Uttar Pradesh Journal Of Zoology. 46(1), 199–216. DOI: https://doi.org/10.56557/upjoz/2025/v46i14755
    25. [25]Dube, E., 2024. Nanoparticle-Enhanced Fish Feed: Benefits and Challenges. Fishes. 9(8), 322. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes9080322
    26. [26]Mondal, A.H., Behera, T., Swain, P., et al., 2020. Nano Zinc Vis‐À‐Vis Inorganic Zinc as Feed Additives: Effects on Growth, Activity of Hepatic Enzymes and Non‐Specific Immunity in Rohu, Labeo Rohita (Hamilton) Fingerlings. Aquaculture Nutrition. 26(4), 1211–1222. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.13077
    27. [27]Vijayaram, S., Ghafarifarsani, H., Vuppala, S., et al., 2025. Selenium Nanoparticles: Revolutionizing Nutrient Enhancement in Aquaculture – A Review. Biological Trace Element Research. 203(1), 442–453. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-024-04172-x
    28. [28]Ashouri, S., Keyvanshokooh, S., Salati, A.P., et al., 2015. Effects of Different Levels of Dietary Selenium Nanoparticles on Growth Performance, Muscle Composition, Blood Biochemical Profiles and Antioxidant Status of Common Carp (Cyprinus Carpio). Aquaculture. 446, 25–29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.04.021
    29. [29]Ahmed, J., Vasagam, K.P.K., Ramalingam, K., 2023. Nanoencapsulated Aquafeeds and Current Uses in Fisheries/Shrimps: A Review. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 195(11), 7110–7131. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-023-04418-9
    30. [30]Gómez, B., Barba, F.J., Domínguez, R., et al., 2018. Microencapsulation of Antioxidant Compounds Through Innovative Technologies and Its Specific Application in Meat Processing. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 82, 135–147. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2018.10.006
    31. [31]Malekhosseini, P., Alami, M., Khomeiri, M., et al., 2019. Development of Casein‐Based Nanoencapsulation Systems for Delivery of Epigallocatechin Gallate and Folic Acid. Food Science & Nutrition. 7(2), 519–527. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.827
    32. [32]Taouzinet, L., Djaoudene, O., Fatmi, S., et al., 2023. Trends of Nanoencapsulation Strategy for Natural Compounds in the Food Industry. Processes. 11(5), 1459. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11051459
    33. [33]Hossam-Elden, N., Abu-Elala, N.M., AbuBakr, H.O., et al., 2024. Dietary Chitosan Nanoparticles Enhance Growth, Antioxidant Defenses, Immunity, and Aeromonas Veronii Biovar Sobria Resistance in Nile Tilapia Oreochromis Niloticus. Fishes. 9(10), 388. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes9100388
    34. [34]Samimi, M., Bahri, A.H., Mohammadizadeh, F., 2024. Assessing the Impact of a Diet Incorporating Folic Acid and/or Chitosan Nanoparticles Loaded with Folic Acid (FA/CNPs) on the Growth Performance and Immune Response of Juvenile Beluga Sturgeon (Huso Huso). Aquaculture Reports. 38, 102335. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2024.102335
    35. [35]Raslan, W.S., Shehab, A., Matter, A.F., et al., 2025. Impact of Essential Oil and Probiotics Supplementation on Growth Performance, Serum Biomarkers, Antioxidants Status, Bioenergetics and Histomorphometry of Intestine of Nile Tilapia Fingerlings Challenged with Aeromonas Veronii. BMC Veterinary Research. 21(1), 6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-024-04433-w
    36. [36]Roldan-Juarez, J., Pinares, R., Smith, C.E., et al., 2023. Microencapsulated Essential Oils Influence the Growth and Foregut Histomorphometry of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis Niloticus) Fingerlings. Veterinary and Animal Science. 22, 100316. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vas.2023.100316
    37. [37]Ali, S.E., Jansen, M.D., Mohan, C.V., et al., 2020. Key Risk Factors, Farming Practices and Economic Losses Associated with Tilapia Mortality in Egypt. Aquaculture. 527, 735438. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735438
    38. [38]Brugere, C., Kumar, G., Bondad-Reantaso, M.G., 2025. Bridging Aquatic Organism Health and Economics in the Analysis of Disease Impacts and Biosecurity Strategies in Aquaculture: A Conceptual Framework. Critical Insights in Aquaculture. 1(1), 2441506. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/29932181.2024.2441506
    39. [39]Food and Agriculture Organization, 2023. The Progressive Management Pathway for Aquaculture Biosecurity. FAO: Rome, Italy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4060/cc6858en
    40. [40]Wu, Y., Rashidpour, A., Almajano, M.P., et al., 2020. Chitosan-Based Drug Delivery System: Applications in Fish Biotechnology. Polymers. 12(5), 1177. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12051177
    41. [41]Nandhakumar, Ramachandran, I., Elumalai, P., 2025. Mucoadhesive Chitosan-Based Nano Vaccine as Promising Immersion Vaccine Against Edwardsiella Tarda Challenge in Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis Niloticus). Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology. 286, 110976. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetimm.2025.110976
    42. [42]Ibrahim, R.E., Elshopakey, G.E., Abdelwarith, A.A., et al., 2023. Chitosan Neem Nanocapsule Enhances Immunity and Disease Resistance in Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis Niloticus). Heliyon. 9(9), e19354. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19354
    43. [43]Saleh, M., El-Moghazy, A., Elgohary, A.H., et al., 2025. Revolutionizing Nanovaccines: A New Era of Immunization. Vaccines. 13(2), 126. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13020126
    44. [44]Patel, P., Garala, K., Singh, S., et al., 2024. Lipid-Based Nanoparticles in Delivering Bioactive Compounds for Improving Therapeutic Efficacy. Pharmaceuticals. 17(3), 329. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ph17030329
    45. [45]Jonjaroen, V., Charoonnart, P., Jitrakorn, S., et al., 2024. Nanoparticles‐Based Double‐Stranded RNA Delivery as an Antiviral Agent in Shrimp Aquaculture. Reviews in Aquaculture. 16(4), 1647–1673. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12916
    46. [46]Chariou, P.L., Ortega-Rivera, O.A., Steinmetz, N.F., 2020. Nanocarriers for the Delivery of Medical, Veterinary, and Agricultural Active Ingredients. ACS Nano. 14(3), 2678–2701. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c00173
    47. [47]Egwu, C.O., Aloke, C., Onwe, K.T., et al., 2024. Nanomaterials in Drug Delivery: Strengths and Opportunities in Medicine. Molecules. 29(11), 2584. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29112584
    48. [48]Dube, E., 2024. Antibacterial Activity of Engineered Nanoparticles Against Fish Pathogens. Aquaculture Reports. 37, 102240. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2024.102240
    49. [49]Camacho-Jiménez, L., Álvarez-Sánchez, A.R., Mejía-Ruíz, C.H., 2020. Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) as Antimicrobials in Marine Shrimp Farming: A Review. Aquaculture Reports. 18, 100512. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2020.100512
    50. [50]Abdelkarim, E.A., Elsamahy, T., El Bayomi, R.M., et al., 2025. Nanoparticle-Driven Aquaculture: Transforming Disease Management and Boosting Sustainable Fish Farming Practices. Aquaculture International. 33(4), 288. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-025-01952-7
    51. [51]Dang, L.T., Nguyen, L.T., Pham, V.T., et al., 2021. Usage and Knowledge of Antibiotics of Fish Farmers in Small‐Scale Freshwater Aquaculture in the Red River Delta, Vietnam. Aquaculture Research. 52(8), 3580–3590. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/are.15201
    52. [52]Ogunfowora, L.A., Iwuozor, K.O., Ighalo, J.O., et al., 2021. Trends in the Treatment of Aquaculture Effluents Using Nanotechnology. Cleaner Materials. 2, 100024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clema.2021.100024
    53. [53]Ozkaleli, M., Erdem, A., 2020. The Role of TiO2 Nanoparticles in Disinfection of Gram (+) Bacteria Under Visible Light. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin. 28, 2780–2786. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339643462_THE_ROLE_OF_TiO2_NANOPARTICLES_IN_DISINFECTION_OF_GRAM_BACTERIA_UNDER_VISIBLE_LIGHT
    54. [54]Şimşek, B., Sevgili, İ., Ceran, Ö.B., et al., 2018. Nanomaterials Based Drinking Water Purification: Comparative Study with a Conventional Water Purification Process. Periodica Polytechnica Chemical Engineering. 63(1), 96–112. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3311/PPch.12458
    55. [55]Dagil, G.J., Nyuk-Ting, N., Keyon, A.S.A., et al., 2022. Magnetic Nanoparticles As Effective Adsorbents For The Removal of Heavy Metals From Water: A Review of Surface Modification (2015-2022). Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences. 26(6). 1344–1377. Available from: https://mjas.analis.com.my/mjas/v26_n6/pdf/Dagil_26_6_16.pdf
    56. [56]Ahmad, A.L., Chin, J.Y., Mohd Harun, M.H.Z., et al., 2022. Environmental Impacts and Imperative Technologies Towards Sustainable Treatment of Aquaculture Wastewater: A Review. Journal of Water Process Engineering. 46, 102553. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.102553
    57. [57]Sheta, B., El-Zahed, M., Nawareg, M., et al., 2024. Nanoremediation of Tilapia Fish Culture Using Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Biosynthesized by Bacillus Subtilis and Immobilized in a Free-Floating Macroporous Cryogel. BMC Veterinary Research. 20(1), 455. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-024-04292-5
    58. [58]Lyu, T., Wu, S., Mortimer, R.J.G., et al., 2019. Nanobubble Technology in Environmental Engineering: Revolutionization Potential and Challenges. Environmental Science & Technology. 53(13), 7175–7176. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b02821
    59. [59]Yaparatne, S., Morón-López, J., Bouchard, D., et al., 2024. Nanobubble Applications in Aquaculture Industry for Improving Harvest Yield, Wastewater Treatment, and Disease Control. Science of The Total Environment. 931, 172687. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172687
    60. [60]Xiao, W., Xu, G., 2020. Mass Transfer of Nanobubble Aeration and Its Effect on Biofilm Growth: Microbial Activity and Structural Properties. Science of The Total Environment. 703, 134976. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134976
    61. [61]Nghia, N.H., Van, P.T., Giang, P.T., et al., 2021. Control of Vibrio Parahaemolyticus (AHPND Strain) and Improvement of Water Quality Using Nanobubble Technology. Aquaculture Research. 52(6), 2727–2739. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/are.15124
    62. [62]Thanh Dien, L., Linh, N.V., Sangpo, P., et al., 2021. Ozone Nanobubble Treatments Improve Survivability of Nile Tilapia ( Oreochromis Niloticus ) Challenged with a Pathogenic Multi‐Drug‐Resistant Aeromonas Hydrophila. Journal of Fish Diseases. 44(9), 1435–1447. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jfd.13451
    63. [63]Linh, N.V., Dien, L.T., Sangpo, P., et al., 2022. Pre-Treatment of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis Niloticus) with Ozone Nanobubbles Improve Efficacy of Heat-Killed Streptococcus Agalactiae Immersion Vaccine. Fish & Shellfish Immunology. 123, 229–237. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2022.03.007
    64. [64]de Camargo, E.T., Spanhol, F.A., Slongo, J.S., et al., 2023. Low-Cost Water Quality Sensors for IoT: A Systematic Review. Sensors. 23(9), 4424. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094424
    65. [65]Mohd Jais, N.A., Abdullah, A.F., Mohd Kassim, M.S., et al., 2024. Improved Accuracy in IoT-Based Water Quality Monitoring for Aquaculture Tanks Using Low-Cost Sensors: Asian Seabass Fish Farming. Heliyon. 10(8), e29022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29022
    66. [66]Shehata, N., Kandas, I., Samir, E., 2020. In-Situ Gold–Ceria Nanoparticles: Superior Optical Fluorescence Quenching Sensor for Dissolved Oxygen. Nanomaterials. 10(2), 314. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10020314
    67. [67]Silvanir, Foo, W.H., Chia, W.Y., et al., 2024. Nanomaterials in Aquaculture Disinfection, Water Quality Monitoring and Wastewater Remediation. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 12(5), 113947. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2024.113947
    68. [68]Huang, Y.-P., Khabusi, S.P., 2025. Artificial Intelligence of Things (AIoT) Advances in Aquaculture: A Review. Processes. 13(1), 73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13010073
    69. [69]Chandran, P.J.I., Khalil, H.A., Hashir, P., et al., 2025. Smart Technologies in Aquaculture: An Integrated IoT, AI, and Blockchain Framework for Sustainable Growth. Aquacultural Engineering. 111, 102584. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaeng.2025.102584
    70. [70]Cabello, F.C., Godfrey, H.P., Tomova, A., et al., 2013. Antimicrobial Use in Aquaculture Re‐Examined: Its Relevance to Antimicrobial Resistance and to Animal and Human Health. Environmental Microbiology. 15(7), 1917–1942. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.12134
    71. [71]Nowack, B., Krug, H.F., Height, M., 2011. 120 Years of Nanosilver History: Implications for Policy Makers. Environmental Science & Technology. 45(4), 1177–1183. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es103316q
    72. [72]Levard, C., Hotze, E.M., Lowry, G.V., et al., 2012. Environmental Transformations of Silver Nanoparticles: Impact on Stability and Toxicity. Environmental Science & Technology. 46(13), 6900–6914. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es2037405
    73. [73]Sharma, V.K., 2009. Aggregation and Toxicity of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles in Aquatic Environment—A Review. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A. 44(14), 1485–1495. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10934520903263231
    74. [74]Huang, J., Li, S., Lin, Y., 2022. Effects and Mechanism of Two Nanoparticles (Titanium Dioxide and Silver) to Moina Mongolica Daday (Crustacea, Cladocera). Frontiers in Marine Science. 9, 909701. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.909701
    75. [75]Amin, N., Erfan, M.A., 2025. Environmental Fate and Toxicity of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles in Aquatic Ecosystems: A Comprehensive Review. Journal of Natural Science Review. 3(1), 104–125. DOI: https://doi.org/10.62810/jnsr.v3i1.103
    76. [76]Tang, S., Wang, J., Zhu, X., et al., 2024. Ecological Risks of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles for Early Life Stages of Obscure Puffer (Takifugu obscurus). Toxics. 12(1), 48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12010048
    77. [77]Lai, R.W.S., Kang, H.-M., Zhou, G.-J., et al., 2021. Hydrophobic Surface Coating Can Reduce Toxicity of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles to the Marine Copepod Tigriopus Japonicus. Environmental Science & Technology. 55(10), 6917–6925. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c01300
    78. [78]Saxena, P., Harish, Shah, D., et al., 2024. A Critical Review on Fate, Behavior, and Ecotoxicological Impact of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles on Algae. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 31(13), 19105–19122. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32439-2
    79. [79]Dobretsov, S., Sathe, P., Bora, T., et al., 2020. Toxicity of Different Zinc Oxide Nanomaterials at 3 Trophic Levels: Implications for Development of Low-Toxicity Antifouling Agents. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 39(7), 1343–1354. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4720
    80. [80]Ma, H., Williams, P.L., Diamond, S.A., 2013. Ecotoxicity of Manufactured ZnO Nanoparticles – A Review. Environmental Pollution. 172, 76–85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2012.08.011
    81. [81]Suárez-Oubiña, C., Herbello-Hermelo, P., Mallo, N., et al., 2024. Bioaccumulation and Human Risk Assessment of Inorganic Nanoparticles in Aquaculture Species. Environmental Science: Nano. 11(7), 2937–2947. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D4EN00167B
    82. [82]Kaya, H., Aydın, F., Gürkan, M., et al., 2015. Effects of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles on Bioaccumulation and Oxidative Stress in Different Organs of Tilapia (Oreochromis Niloticus). Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology. 40(3), 936–947. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2015.10.001
    83. [83]Sukhsangchan, R., Phaksopa, J., Uchuwittayakul, A., et al., 2024. Effects of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) on Growth, Immune Responses and Histopathological Alterations in Asian Seabass (Lates Calcarifer, Bloch 1790) Under Low-Salinity Conditions. Animals. 14(18), 2737. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14182737
    84. [84]Paul, V., Krishnakumar, S., Gowd, G.S., et al., 2021. Sex-Dependent Bioaccumulation of Nano Zinc Oxide and Its Adverse Effects on Sexual Behavior and Reproduction in Japanese Medaka. ACS Applied Bio Materials. 4(10), 7408–7421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsabm.1c00575
    85. [85]Sibiya, A., Jeyavani, J., Ramesh, D., et al., 2024. Ecotoxicological Research on the Toxic Impact of Zinc Oxide and Silver Nanoparticles on Oreochromis Mossambicus. Environmental Toxicology. 39(11), 4946–4959. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/tox.24365
    86. [86]Babaei, M., Tayemeh, M.B., Jo, M.S., et al., 2022. Trophic Transfer and Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles Along a Phytoplankton-Zooplankton-Fish Food Chain. Science of The Total Environment. 842, 156807. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156807
    87. [87]Guo, J., Liu, N., Xie, Q., et al., 2023. Polystyrene Microplastics Facilitate the Biotoxicity and Biomagnification of ZnO Nanoparticles in the Food Chain from Algae to Daphnia. Environmental Pollution. 324, 121181. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121181
    88. [88]Mahaye, N., Leareng, S.K., Musee, N., 2021. Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity of Coated-Gold Nanoparticles on Freshwater Algae Pseudokirchneriella Subcapitata. Aquatic Toxicology. 236, 105865. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2021.105865
    89. [89]Mahaye, N., Thwala, M., Musee, N., 2021. Interactions of Coated-Gold Engineered Nanoparticles with Aquatic Higher Plant Salvinia Minima Baker. Nanomaterials. 11(12), 3178. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11123178
    90. [90]Ghannam, H.E., Khedr, A.I., El-Sayed, R., et al., 2025. Oxidative Stress Responses and Histological Changes in the Liver of Nile Tilapia Exposed to Silver Bulk and Nanoparticles. Scientific Reports. 15(1), 15390. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-97731-8
    91. [91]Mahaye, N., Musee, N., 2023. Evaluation of Apical and Molecular Effects of Algae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata to Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles. Toxics. 11(3), 283. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11030283
    92. [92]Grasso, A., Ferrante, M., Zuccarello, P., et al., 2020. Chemical Characterization and Quantification of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs) in Seafood by Single-Particle ICP-MS: Assessment of Dietary Exposure. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17(24), 9547. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249547
    93. [93]Kakakhel, M.A., Wu, F., Sajjad, W., et al., 2021. Long-Term Exposure to High-Concentration Silver Nanoparticles Induced Toxicity, Fatality, Bioaccumulation, and Histological Alteration in Fish (Cyprinus Carpio). Environmental Sciences Europe. 33(1), 14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-021-00453-7
    94. [94]Pathak, G., Mangla, S., Gupta, G.K., et al., 2025. Toxicological Assessment and Risk Management of Nanoparticles Mediated Composite Materials-Critical Review: State of the Art. Discover Polymers. 2(1), 12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44347-025-00023-7
    95. [95]Lane, T., Wardani, I., Koelmans, A.A., 2025. Exposure Scenarios for Human Health Risk Assessment of Nano- and Microplastic Particles. Microplastics and Nanoplastics. 5(1), 28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s43591-025-00134-9
    96. [96]Lamas, B., Martins Breyner, N., Houdeau, E., 2020. Impacts of Foodborne Inorganic Nanoparticles on the Gut Microbiota-Immune Axis: Potential Consequences for Host Health. Particle and Fibre Toxicology. 17(1), 19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12989-020-00349-z
    97. [97]Campos, D., Goméz-García, R., Oliveira, D., et al., 2022. Intake of Nanoparticles and Impact on Gut Microbiota: In Vitro and Animal Models Available for Testing. Gut Microbiome. 3, e1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/gmb.2021.5
    98. [98]Zhang, L., Wu, C., Wang, Q., 2025. Toxicity of Engineered Nanoparticles in Food: Sources, Mechanisms, Contributing Factors, and Assessment Techniques. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 73(22), 13142–13158. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5c01550
    99. [99]Utembe, W., Tlotleng, N., Kamng’ona, A., 2022. A Systematic Review on the Effects of Nanomaterials on Gut Microbiota. Current Research in Microbial Sciences. 3, 100118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crmicr.2022.100118
    100. [100]Ma, Y., Zhang, J., Yu, N., et al., 2023. Effect of Nanomaterials on Gut Microbiota. Toxics. 11(4), 384. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11040384
    101. [101]Chen, Z., Han, S., Zhou, D., et al., 2019. Effects of Oral Exposure to Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles on Gut Microbiota and Gut-Associated Metabolism in Vivo. Nanoscale. 11(46), 22398–22412. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C9NR07580A
    102. [102]Gangadoo, S., Nguyen, H., Rajapaksha, P., et al., 2021. Inorganic Nanoparticles as Food Additives and Their Influence on the Human Gut Microbiota. Environmental Science: Nano. 8(6), 1500–1518. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D1EN00025J
    103. [103]Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2023. Test No.125: Nanomaterial Particle Size and Size Distribution of Nanomaterials. OECD: Paris, France. Available from: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/test-no-125-nanomaterial-particle-size-and-size-distribution-of-nanomaterials_af5f9bda-en.html
    104. [104]Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 2015. CVM GFI #220 Use of Nanomaterials in Food for Animals. FDA: Silver Spring, MD, USA. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/cvm-gfi-220-use-nanomaterials-food-animals
    105. [105]Parsai, T., Kumar, A., 2024. Incorporating Size-Dependent Reference Dose (RfD) and Gastric System Effect in Estimation of Nanoparticles Risks to Human. Environmental Processes. 11(3), 42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-024-00717-3
    Back to top