Review

Ecotoxicity of Petrogenic Plastic Particles in Fish: Implication for Human Health and Environmental Risk Assessment

Bwala Mathias Nzitiri ORCID , Gaya Abalis Ezra ORCID , Nayaya Ahmad Jibrin , Buba Toma ORCID
    Received: 19 August 2025 | Revised: 21 November 2025 | Accepted: 28 November 2025 | Published Online: 5 December 2025

    Abstract

    Petrogenic plastics might fragment within the ecosystems into progressively smaller fragments classified by size as “macroplastics”, “mesoplastics”, “microplastics”, and “nanoplastics”. Petrogenic micro and nano plastics (MNPs) are ubiquitous in the ecosystems and form as a result of the ageing or the action of prevailing bio-environmental factors on the plastic materials or direct release of MNPs in the environment. Fish and other aquatic organisms may ingest MNPs from their polluted environment. This review aims to explore the multifaceted interactions between MNPs, other pollutants, and the potential threats to human health. MNPs can translocate from the digestive tract to the kidney, liver, and other body tissues, causing several toxicological effects in fish and other organisms in the food chain. MNPs can induce hepatic and renal toxicity, causing the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic potentials in organisms. MNPs can also act as channels via which contaminants and pollutants such as heavy metals, endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), organophosphate and organochlorine pesticides, etc, might pass to the organisms from different environmental media to organisms in their environment. The ingestion of fish and other contaminated aquatic bio-resources might affect human health via cancer or non-cancer risk effects. MNPs can also impact negatively on the human genetic makeup, inhibit cell viability, induce inflammatory responses, and cause minor morphological alterations. Different equipment is used to detect and characterize MNPs from the environmental matrix.

    Keywords

    Microplastics, Aquatic Pollution, Health Risk, Nanoplastics, Sampling Microplastics

    References
    1. [1]Lusher, A., Hollman, P., Mendoza-Hill, J., 2017. Microplastics in Fisheries and Aquaculture: Status of Knowledge on Their Occurrence and Implications for Aquatic Organisms and Food Safety. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): Rome, Italy. Available from: https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a9a298e0-9db6-4769-beac-37325be3e280/content
    2. [2]Barnes, D.K.A., Galgani, F., Thompson, R.C., et al., 2009. Accumulation and Fragmentation of Plastic Debris in Global Environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 364(1526), 1985–1998. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0205
    3. [3]Horton, A.A., Walton, A., Spurgeon, D.J., et al., 2017. Microplastics in Freshwater and Terrestrial Environments: Evaluating the Current Understanding to Identify the Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Priorities. Science of The Total Environment. 586, 127–141. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.190
    4. [4]McIlwraith, H.K., Hataley, E., Rochman, C.M., 2021. Towards a Management Strategy for Microplastic Pollution in the Laurentian Great Lakes - Monitoring (Part 1). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 80(10), cjfas-2023-0022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2023-0022
    5. [5]The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2016. Marine Plastic Debris and Microplastics: Global Lessons and Research to Inspire Action and Guide Policy Change. UNEP: Nairobi, Kenya. Available from: https://www.unep.org/resources/publication/marine-plastic-debris-and-microplastics-global-lessons-and-research-inspire
    6. [6]Triebskorn, R., Braunbeck, T., Grummt, T., et al., 2019. Relevance of Nano- and Microplastics for Freshwater Ecosystems: A Critical Review. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 110, 375–392. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2018.11.023
    7. [7]Graham, P.M., Pattinson, N.B., Bakir, A., et al., 2024. Determination of Microplastics in Sediment, Water, and Fish Across the Orange-Senqu River Basin. Water Research. 266, 122394. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.122394
    8. [8]Naidoo, T., Smit, A., Glassom, D., 2016. Plastic Ingestion by Estuarine Mullet Mugil Cephalus (Mugilidae) in an Urban Harbour, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. African Journal of Marine Science. 38(1), 145–149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2989/1814232X.2016.1159616
    9. [9]Zhang, K., Shi, H., Peng, J., et al., 2018. Microplastic Pollution in China’s Inland Water Systems: A Review of Findings, Methods, Characteristics, Effects, and Management. Science of The Total Environment. 630, 1641–1653. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.300
    10. [10]Atamanalp, M., Köktürk, M., Parlak, V., et al., 2022. A New Record for the Presence of Microplastics in Dominant Fish Species of the Karasu River Erzurum, Turkey. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 29(5), 7866–7876. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16243-w
    11. [11]Avio, C.G., Gorbi, S., Milan, M., et al., 2015. Pollutants Bioavailability and Toxicological Risk from Microplastics to Marine Mussels. Environmental Pollution. 198, 211–222. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.12.021
    12. [12]Tasneem, A.T., 2021. Assessing the Sources of Microplastic Pollution in the Maumee Watershed: A Geospatial Approach [Master’s Thesis]. University of Toledo: Toledo, OH, USA. Available from: https://etd.ohiolink.edu/acprod/odb_etd/ws/send_file/send?accession=toledo1628538423149272&disposition=inline
    13. [13]Lai, H., Liu, X., Qu, M., 2022. Nanoplastics and Human Health: Hazard Identification and Biointerface. Nanomaterials. 12(8), 1298. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12081298
    14. [14]The Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP), 2016. Sources, Fate and Effects of Microplastics in the Marine Environment: Part Two of a Global Assessment. GESAMP: London, UK. Available from: http://www.gesamp.org/site/assets/files/1275/sources-fate-and-effects-of-microplastics-in-the-marine-environment-part-2-of-a-global-assessment-en.pdf
    15. [15]Andrady, A.L., 2015. Persistence of Plastic Litter in the Oceans. In: Bergmann, M., Gutow, L., Klages, M. (Eds.). Marine Anthropogenic Litter. Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 57–72. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16510-3_3
    16. [16]Dris, R., Imhof, H., Sanchez, W., et al., 2015. Beyond the Ocean: Contamination of Freshwater Ecosystems with (micro-)plastic Particles. Environmental Chemistry. 12(5), 539–550. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/EN14172
    17. [17]Driedger, A.G.J., Dürr, H.H., Mitchell, K., et al., 2015. Plastic Debris in the Laurentian Great Lakes: A Review. Journal of Great Lakes Research. 41(1), 9–19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jglr.2014.12.020
    18. [18]Eerkes-Medrano, D., Thompson, R.C., Aldridge, D.C., 2015. Microplastics in Freshwater Systems: A Review of the Emerging Threats, Identification of Knowledge Gaps and Prioritisation of Research Needs. Water Research. 75, 63–82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.02.012
    19. [19]Besseling, E., Quik, J.T.K., Sun, M., et al., 2017. Fate of Nano- and Microplastic in Freshwater Systems: A Modeling Study. Environmental Pollution. 220, 540–548. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.001
    20. [20]Politikos, D.V., Ioakeimidis, C., Papatheodorou, G., et al., 2017. Modeling the Fate and Distribution of Floating Litter Particles in the Aegean Sea (E. Mediterranean). Frontiers in Marine Science. 4, 191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00191
    21. [21]Klein, S., Worch, E., Knepper, T.P., 2015. Occurrence and Spatial Distribution of Microplastics in River Shore Sediments of the Rhine-Main Area in Germany. Environmental Science & Technology. 49(10), 6070–6076. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00492
    22. [22]Free, C.M., Jensen, O.P., Mason, S.A., et al., 2014. High-Levels of Microplastic Pollution in a Large, Remote, Mountain Lake. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 85(1), 156–163. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.06.001
    23. [23]Dai, Z., Zhang, H., Zhou, Q., et al., 2018. Occurrence of Microplastics in the Water Column and Sediment in an Inland Sea Affected by Intensive Anthropogenic Activities. Environmental Pollution. 242, 1557–1565. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.131
    24. [24]Mohamed, N.H.N., Obbard, J.P., 2014. Microplastics in Singapore’s Coastal Mangrove Ecosystems. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 79(1–2), 278–283. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.11.025
    25. [25]Leslie, H.A., Brandsma, S.H., Van Velzen, M.J.M., et al., 2017. Microplastics En Route: Field Measurements in the Dutch River Delta and Amsterdam Canals, Wastewater Treatment Plants, North Sea Sediments and Biota. Environment International. 101, 133–142. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.01.018
    26. [26]Vianello, A., Boldrin, A., Guerriero, P., et al., 2013. Microplastic Particles in Sediments of Lagoon of Venice, Italy: First Observations on Occurrence, Spatial Patterns and Identification. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 130, 54–61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2013.03.022
    27. [27]Heo, N.W., Hong, S.H., Han, G.M., et al., 2013. Distribution of Small Plastic Debris in Cross-Section and High Strandline on Heungnam Beach, South Korea. Ocean Science Journal. 48(2), 225–233. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12601-013-0019-9
    28. [28]Lee, J., Lee, J.S., Jang, Y.C., et al., 2015. Distribution and Size Relationships of Plastic Marine Debris on Beaches in South Korea. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 69(3), 288–298. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-015-0208-x
    29. [29]Markic, A., Niemand, C., Bridson, J.H., et al., 2018. Double Trouble in the South Pacific Subtropical Gyre: Increased Plastic Ingestion by Fish in the Oceanic Accumulation Zone. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 136, 547–564. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.09.031
    30. [30]Kılıç, E., Yücel, N., 2022. Microplastic Occurrence in the Gastrointestinal Tract and Gill of Bioindicator Fish Species in the Northeastern Mediterranean. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 177, 113556. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113556
    31. [31]Reboa, A., Cutroneo, L., Consani, S., et al., 2022. Mugilidae Fish as Bioindicator for Monitoring Plastic Pollution: Comparison Between a Commercial Port and a Fishpond (north-Western Mediterranean Sea). Marine Pollution Bulletin. 177, 113531. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113531
    32. [32]Ferreira, G.V.B., Barletta, M., Lima, A.R.A., et al., 2016. Plastic debris contamination in the life cycle of Acoupa weakfish ( Cynoscion acoupa ) in a tropical estuary. ICES Journal of Marine Science: Journal du Conseil. 73(10), 2695–2707. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsw108
    33. [33]Rummel, C.D., Löder, M.G.J., Fricke, N.F., et al., 2016. Plastic Ingestion by Pelagic and Demersal Fish from the North Sea and Baltic Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 102(1), 134–141. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.11.043
    34. [34]Foekema, E.M., De Gruijter, C., Mergia, M.T., et al., 2013. Plastic in North Sea Fish. Environmental Science & Technology. 47(15), 8818–8824. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es400931b
    35. [35]Jabeen, K., Su, L., Li, J., et al., 2017. Microplastics and Mesoplastics in Fish from Coastal and Fresh Waters of China. Environmental Pollution. 221, 141–149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.11.055
    36. [36]Güven, O., Gökdağ, K., Jovanović, B., et al., 2017. Microplastic Litter Composition of the Turkish Territorial Waters of the Mediterranean Sea, and Its Occurrence in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Fish. Environmental Pollution. 223, 286–294. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.01.025
    37. [37]Biginagwa, F.J., Mayoma, B.S., Shashoua, Y., et al., 2016. First Evidence of Microplastics in the African Great Lakes: Recovery from Lake Victoria Nile Perch and Nile Tilapia. Journal of Great Lakes Research. 42(1), 146–149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jglr.2015.10.012
    38. [38]Sutton, R., Mason, S.A., Stanek, S.K., et al., 2016. Microplastic Contamination in the San Francisco Bay, California, USA. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 109(1), 230–235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.077
    39. [39]Steer, M., Cole, M., Thompson, R.C., et al., 2017. Microplastic Ingestion in Fish Larvae in the Western English Channel. Environmental Pollution. 226, 250–259. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.03.062
    40. [40]Sanchez, W., Bender, C., Porcher, J.-M., 2014. Wild Gudgeons (Gobio Gobio) from French Rivers Are Contaminated by Microplastics: Preliminary Study and First Evidence. Environmental Research. 128, 98–100. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2013.11.004
    41. [41]Welden, N.A.C., Cowie, P.R., 2016. Environment and Gut Morphology Influence Microplastic Retention in Langoustine, Nephrops Norvegicus. Environmental Pollution. 214, 859–865. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.03.067
    42. [42]Paul, D.K., Ramesh, Y., 2022. Microplastic in Inland Water Fish in India: Presence and Fate. Techno World. 37–53. Available from: https://www.socialresearchfoundation.com/upoadreserchpapers/4/491/220112044646microplastic%20in%20inland%20water%20fish%20in%20india_%20presence%20and%20fate.docx.pdf
    43. [43]Davidson, K., Dudas, S.E., 2016. Microplastic Ingestion by Wild and Cultured Manila Clams (Venerupis Philippinarum) from Baynes Sound, British Columbia. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 71(2), 147–156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-016-0286-4
    44. [44]Wegner, A., Besseling, E., Foekema, E.M., et al., 2012. Effects of Nanopolystyrene on the Feeding Behavior of the Blue Mussel ( Mytilus Edulis L.). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 31(11), 2490–2497. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.1984
    45. [45]Lu, Y., Zhang, Y., Deng, Y., et al., 2016. Uptake and Accumulation of Polystyrene Microplastics in Zebrafish ( Danio Rerio ) and Toxic Effects in Liver. Environmental Science & Technology. 50(7), 4054–4060. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00183
    46. [46]Batel, A., Linti, F., Scherer, M., et al., 2016. Transfer of Benzo[ a ]pyrene from Microplastics to Artemia Nauplii and Further to Zebrafish Via a Trophic Food Web Experiment: CYP1A Induction and Visual Tracking of Persistent Organic Pollutants. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 35(7), 1656–1666. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.3361
    47. [47]Mattsson, K., Hansson, L.-A., Cedervall, T., 2015. Nano-Plastics in the Aquatic Environment. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts. 17(10), 1712–1721. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EM00227C
    48. [48]Pedà, C., Caccamo, L., Fossi, M.C., et al., 2016. Intestinal Alterations in European Sea Bass Dicentrarchus Labrax (Linnaeus, 1758) Exposed to Microplastics: Preliminary Results. Environmental Pollution. 212, 251–256. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.01.083
    49. [49]De Sá, L.C., Luís, L.G., Guilhermino, L., 2015. Effects of Microplastics on Juveniles of the Common Goby (Pomatoschistus Microps): Confusion with Prey, Reduction of the Predatory Performance and Efficiency, and Possible Influence of Developmental Conditions. Environmental Pollution. 196, 359–362. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.10.026
    50. [50]Oliveira, M., Ribeiro, A., Hylland, K., et al., 2013. Single and Combined Effects of Microplastics and Pyrene on Juveniles (0+ Group) of the Common Goby Pomatoschistus Microps (Teleostei, Gobiidae). Ecological Indicators. 34, 641–647. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.06.019
    51. [51]Yin, L., Chen, B., Xia, B., et al., 2018. Polystyrene Microplastics Alter the Behavior, Energy Reserve and Nutritional Composition of Marine Jacopever (Sebastes Schlegelii). Journal of Hazardous Materials. 360, 97–105. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.07.110
    52. [52]Iheanacho, S.C., Odo, G.E., 2020. Neurotoxicity, Oxidative Stress Biomarkers and Haematological Responses in African Catfish (Clarias Gariepinus) Exposed to Polyvinyl Chloride Microparticles. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology. 232, 108741. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpc.2020.108741
    53. [53]Prata, J.C., Da Costa, J.P., Lopes, I., et al., 2020. Environmental Exposure to Microplastics: An Overview on Possible Human Health Effects. Science of The Total Environment. 702, 134455. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134455
    54. [54]Karami, A., Golieskardi, A., Keong Choo, C., et al., 2017. The Presence of Microplastics in Commercial Salts from Different Countries. Scientific Reports. 7(1), 46173. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep46173
    55. [55]Ensign, L.M., Cone, R., Hanes, J., 2012. Oral Drug Delivery with Polymeric Nanoparticles: The Gastrointestinal Mucus Barriers. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 64(6), 557–570. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2011.12.009
    56. [56]Salim, S.Y., Kaplan, G.G., Madsen, K.L., 2014. Air Pollution Effects on the Gut Microbiota: A Link Between Exposure and Inflammatory Disease. Gut Microbes. 5(2), 215–219. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4161/gmic.27251
    57. [57]Powell, J.J., Thoree, V., Pele, L.C., 2007. Dietary Microparticles and Their Impact on Tolerance and Immune Responsiveness of the Gastrointestinal Tract. British Journal of Nutrition. 98(S1), S59–S63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114507832922
    58. [58]Forte, M., Iachetta, G., Tussellino, M., et al., 2016. Polystyrene Nanoparticles Internalization in Human Gastric Adenocarcinoma Cells. Toxicology in Vitro. 31, 126–136. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tiv.2015.11.006
    59. [59]Rochman, C.M., Tahir, A., Williams, S.L., et al., 2015. Anthropogenic Debris in Seafood: Plastic Debris and Fibers from Textiles in Fish and Bivalves Sold for Human Consumption. Scientific Reports. 5(1), 14340. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14340
    60. [60]Hidalgo-Ruz, V., Gutow, L., Thompson, R.C., et al., 2012. Microplastics in the Marine Environment: A Review of the Methods Used for Identification and Quantification. Environmental Science & Technology. 46(6), 3060–3075. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es2031505
    61. [61]Wirnkor, V.A., Ebere, E.C., Ngozi, V.E., 2019. Microplastics, an Emerging Concern: A Review of Analytical Techniques for Detecting and Quantifying Microplatics. Analytical Methods in Environmental Chemistry Journal. 2(2), 13–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24200/amecj.v2.i2.57
    62. [62]Shim, W.J., Hong, S.H., Eo, S.E., 2017. Identification Methods in Microplastic Analysis: A Review. Analytical Methods. 9(9), 1384–1391. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C6AY02558G
    63. [63]Zada, L., Leslie, H.A., Vethaak, A.D., et al., 2018. Fast Microplastics Identification with Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy. Journal of Raman Spectroscopy. 49(7), 1136–1144. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.5367
    64. [64]Frias, J.P.G.L., Sobral, P., Ferreira, A.M., 2010. Organic Pollutants in Microplastics from Two Beaches of the Portuguese Coast. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 60(11), 1988–1992. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.07.030
    65. [65]Rios, L.M., Moore, C., Jones, P.R., 2007. Persistent Organic Pollutants Carried by Synthetic Polymers in the Ocean Environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 54(8), 1230–1237. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.022
    66. [66]Teuten, E.L., Rowland, S.J., Galloway, T.S., et al., 2007. Potential for Plastics to Transport Hydrophobic Contaminants. Environmental Science & Technology. 41(22), 7759–7764. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es071737s
    67. [67]Karapanagioti, H.K., Siavalas, G., Kalaitzidis, S., et al., 2009. Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydro Carbons (PAHs) in the Gulf of Aliveri. In Proceedings of the 9th National Greek Symposium on Oceanography and Fishery, Athens, Greece, 16 April 2009; pp. 251–255.
    68. [68]Hirai, H., Takada, H., Ogata, Y., et al., 2011. Organic Micropollutants in Marine Plastics Debris from the Open Ocean and Remote and Urban Beaches. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 62(8), 1683–1692. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.06.004
    69. [69]Fisner, M., Taniguchi, S., Moreira, F., et al., 2013. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Plastic Pellets: Variability in the Concentration and Composition at Different Sediment Depths in a Sandy Beach. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 70(1–2), 219–226. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.03.008
    70. [70]Mato, Y., Isobe, T., Takada, H., et al., 2001. Plastic Resin Pellets as a Transport Medium for Toxic Chemicals in the Marine Environment. Environmental Science & Technology. 35(2), 318–324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es0010498
    71. [71]Ogata, Y., Takada, H., Mizukawa, K., et al., 2009. International Pellet Watch: Global Monitoring of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Coastal Waters. 1. Initial Phase Data on PCBs, DDTs, and HCHs. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 58(10), 1437–1446. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.06.014
    72. [72]Colabuono, F.I., Taniguchi, S., Montone, R.C., 2010. Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Organochlorine Pesticides in Plastics Ingested by Seabirds. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 60(4), 630–634. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.01.018
    73. [73]Mohsen, M., Wang, Q., Zhang, L., et al., 2019. Heavy Metals in Sediment, Microplastic and Sea Cucumber Apostichopus Japonicus from Farms in China. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 143, 42–49. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.04.025
    74. [74]Munier, B., Bendell, L.I., 2018. Macro and Micro Plastics Sorb and Desorb Metals and Act as a Point Source of Trace Metals to Coastal Ecosystems. PLOS ONE. 13(2), e0191759. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191759
    75. [75]Galloway, T.S., Cole, M., Lewis, C., 2017. Interactions of Microplastic Debris Throughout the Marine Ecosystem. Nature Ecology & Evolution. 1(5), 0116. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0116
    76. [76]Rochman, C.M., 2016. Strategies for Reducing Ocean Plastic Debris Should Be Diverse and Guided by Science. Environmental Research Letters. 11(4), 041001. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/041001
    77. [77]Wu, M., Yang, C., Du, C., et al., 2020. Microplastics in Waters and Soils: Occurrence, Analytical Methods and Ecotoxicological Effects. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 202, 110910. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110910
    78. [78]Thushari, G.G.N., Senevirathna, J.D.M., 2020. Plastic Pollution in the Marine Environment. Heliyon. 6(8), e04709. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04709
    79. [79]Li, J., Song, Y., Cai, Y., 2020. Focus Topics on Microplastics in Soil: Analytical Methods, Occurrence, Transport, and Ecological Risks. Environmental Pollution. 257, 113570. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113570
    80. [80]Rochman, C.M., Kurobe, T., Flores, I., et al., 2014. Early Warning Signs of Endocrine Disruption in Adult Fish from the Ingestion of Polyethylene with and Without Sorbed Chemical Pollutants from the Marine Environment. Science of The Total Environment. 493, 656–661. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.051
    81. [81]AshaRani, P.V., Low Kah Mun, G., Hande, M.P., et al., 2009. Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity of Silver Nanoparticles in Human Cells. ACS Nano. 3(2), 279–290. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/nn800596w
    82. [82]Collard, F., Gilbert, B., Eppe, G., et al., 2015. Detection of Anthropogenic Particles in Fish Stomachs: An Isolation Method Adapted to Identification by Raman Spectroscopy. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 69(3), 331–339. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-015-0221-0
    83. [83]Campbell, S.H., Williamson, P.R., Hall, B.D., 2017. Microplastics in the Gastrointestinal Tracts of Fish and the Water from an Urban Prairie Creek. FACETS. 2, 395–409. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2017-0008
    84. [84]Amaneesh, C., Balan, S.A., Silpa, P.S., et al., 2023. Gross Negligence: Impacts of Microplastics and Plastic Leachates on Phytoplankton Community and Ecosystem Dynamics. Environmental Science & Technology. 57(1), 5–24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c05817
    85. [85]Issac, M.N., Kandasubramanian, B., 2021. Effect of Microplastics in Water and Aquatic Systems. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 28(16), 19544–19562. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13184-2
    86. [86]Ibrahim, D., Froberg, B., Wolf, A., et al., 2006. Heavy Metal Poisoning: Clinical Presentations and Pathophysiology. Clinics in Laboratory Medicine. 26(1), 67–97. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cll.2006.02.003
    87. [87]Fergusson, J.E., 1990. The Heavy Elements: Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health Effects. Pergamon Press: Oxford, UK.
    88. [88]Bwala, M.N., Imam, T.S., 2021. Fish Smoking, Preservation and Socio-Economic Characteristics of Fish Smokers and Traders in Selected Fish Markets in Borno State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Fisheries. 18 (2), 2346–2354. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359894475_FISH_SMOKING_PRESERVATION_AND_SOCIO-ECONOMIC_CHARACTERISTICS_OF_FISH_SMOKERS_AND_TRADERS_IN_SELECTED_FISH_MARKETS_IN_BORNO_STATE_NIGERIA
    89. [89]Bwala, M.N., 2021. The Impact of Irrigational Activities on the Abundance and Distribution of Cat Fish (Clarias gariepinus) in River Ngadda, Maiduguri, Borno State. Nigerian Journal of Science & Research. 2(1), 7–12. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353759908_The_Impact_of_Irrigational_Activities_on_the_Abundance_and_Distribution_of_Cat_Fish_Clarias_gariepinus_in_River_Ngadda_Maiduguri_Borno_State
    90. [90]Bwala, M.N., 2021. Impact of Nonpoint Source Pollutant on Fish Biodiversity in River Ngadda, Maiduguri – Borno State. Nigerian Journal of Pure & Applied Sciences. 34(1), 3631–3640. Available from: https://njpas.com.ng/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/NJPAS-20-B04.pdf
    91. [91]Duffus, J.H., 2002. “Heavy metals” a meaningless term? (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 74(5), 793–807. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200274050793
    92. [92]Andrady, A.L., 2011. Microplastics in the Marine Environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 62(8), 1596–1605. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.05.030
    Back to top